JGNAHS
25 J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health Sci
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
January - June 2025
:
:
https://doi.org/10.37762/jgnahs.143
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
BACTERIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF DRINKING WATER FROM
UNDERGROUND SOURCE IN DOMEL DISTRICT BANNU, KPK-PAKISTAN
Noor Zada Khan 1, Waheed Ullah 2, Zakir Ahmad3, Abdullah4,Imad Tariq5, Fawad Inayat6
-chemical quality of
drinking water sourced from underground pressure pumps in selected areas
of Tehsil Domel, District Bannu, to determine its suitability for human
Water samples were collected from forty underground pressure pumps across
Tehsil Domel District Bannu following standard sampling protocols. The
analysis included bacteriological parameters (total coliform, fecal coliform,
chemical characteristics (pH, electrical
ity), pollution indicators (BOD, COD, TSS, TDS), and
heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd). All analyses were conducted following WHO-
Analysis revealed bacterial contamination in several villages, notably Bezan
, Bara Chashmi, and Masti khil, with bacterial colonies
566 colonies/ml. E. coli presence, elevated BOD, COD,
TDS, and TSS levels exceeded WHO standards in these locations. While Cu
and Zn levels remained within permissible limits, Pb and Cd concentrations
The drinking water from pressure pump sources in Tehsil Domel requires
treatment before consumption to prevent waterborne diseases.
is recommended to
Drinking Water, Pressure Pump source, Domel, Bannu, E.
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES
This study aims to assess the bacteriological and physico
consumption.
METHODOLOGY
E. coli, total plate count), physico-
conductivity, salin
approved standard methods.
RESULTS
Khil, Bodin Khil
ranging from 398-
exceeded WHO guidelines in several sites.
CONCLUSION
Implementation of water quality management strategies
ensure a safe drinking water supply.
KEYWORDS:
coli, Heavy metals
How to cite this article
Khan NZ, Ullah W, Ahmad Z,
Abdullah, Tariq I, Inayat F.
Bacteriological a
Analysis of Drinking Water
Underground Source
Bannu, Kpk-Pakistan
Nurs Alli Health
Date of Submission:
Date Revised:
Date Acceptance:
1PhD Scholar at Department of
Microbiology university of science &
Technology Kohat
2Associate Professor at Department of
3MPhil Scholar at Department of
4Lecturer at the Institute of Health
nd Physico-Chemical
from
in Domel District
. J Gandhara
Sci. 2025;5(1):25-29
Microbiology University of Science &
Technology Kohat
Biochemistry Abdul Wali Khan
University Mardan
Sciences, Khyber Medical University
5Histopathology Technologist at the
Agha Khan University Hospital, Karachi
Correspondence
6Fawad Inayat, MPhil Scholar at
Department of Biochemistry, Abdul
Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan
+92-313-0918155
fawad.313b@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Water on the earth’s surface is a valuable and common
liquid. It is a dynamic element for the existence of life
on the globe as water has ores which are very
significant for human beings accompanied by further
living creatures.1 Water is used for miscellaneous
purposes as it is a part of the principal nutrition item in
our monotonous existence. Urbanization has developed
from 31 to 34% in previous rare ages in Pakistan.2
Availability of Potable drinking water condensed from
60 to 40% due to hasty augment in urbanization.3
Water contamination has become a severe issue in
Pakistan. The major causes of water pollution are
generally the release of industrial waste materials,
direct household, poor management of farm wastes and
leakage from improperly maintained affected water
tanks.4 Many diseases are caused when toxic Arsenic is
entered into the human body through drinking water.5
Physico-chemical parameters for water quality include
Total dissolved solids (TDS), Total suspended solids
(TSS), Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and
Biological oxygen demand (BOD).6 The amount of
organic pollutants are determined by COD which are
found in waste and surface water.7 Biological oxygen
demand (BOD) is the sum of disbanded oxygen
required by aerobic biological microorganisms in a
body of water to measure the amount of organic
pollution of water and the breakdown of organic
material at a definite temperature over a precise
period.8 Many emerging countries of the world are
facing either punitive scarcities of fresh water or the
contamination of freely reachable water revenue.1 A
recent report by UNICEF stated that about 800 million
30-10-2024
10-01-2025
15-01-2025
JGNAHS
26J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health SciJanuary - June 2025
people in Asia and Africa are having life lacking access
to fresh drinking water. As a result, various disorders in
people have been caused by the lack of safe drinking
water facilities.9 Inappropriate drinking water quality is
causing most diseases in Pakistan. The wide diversity
of microbes is spreading waterborne diseases. The
higher the level of faecal pollution more will be the
risk of faecal-oral diseases when indicator bacteria (E.
coli) is higher. 100 ml of drinking water should not
have Fecal coliforms especially E. coli.10 The primary
objective of this research was to conduct a
comprehensive physico-chemical and bacteriological
analysis of underground potable water sources in
Tehsil Domel, District Bannu. This study aimed to
evaluate the water quality parameters to determine its
suitability for human consumption and identify
potential health risks associated with contamination.
METHODOLOGY
Forty drinking water samples were collected from
underground pressure pumps across different locations
in Tehsil Domel, District Bannu, following standard
protocols described by APHA (2017).11 Samples were
collected in sterile 1L polyethene bottles, transported in
ice boxes maintained at 4°C, and analyzed within 24
hours of collection. Water quality parameters including
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and salinity were
measured in situ using calibrated portable meters (Hach
HQ40d, USA). Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total
suspended solids (TSS) were determined
gravimetrically following Standard Methods 2540C
and 2540D respectively.12 Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) was measured using the 5-day BOD test
(Standard Method 5210B), while chemical oxygen
demand (COD) was determined using the closed reflux
colourimetric method (Standard Method 5220D).13
Total coliform, faecal coliform, and E. coli were
enumerated using the multiple tube fermentation
technique as per Standard Methods 9221B and 9221E
(12). Total plate count (TPC) was determined using the
pour plate method on plate count agar, incubated at
35±0.5°C for 48 hours.14 Heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb,
and Cd) were analyzed using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 800)
following acid digestion as per EPA Method 3005A.15
Quality control measures included method blanks,
certified reference materials, and duplicate samples.
Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 25.0.
Descriptive statistics were calculated, and results were
compared with WHO drinking water guidelines.
RESULTS
Table 1 indicates slight acidic to alkaline conditions
across the sampling sites.
Table 1: Physico-chemical parameters of drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu
Location BOD
mg/L
COD
mg/L
TDS
mg/L
TSS
mg/
L
Condu
ctivity
μS/cm
Sali
nity
mg/L
pH
Jangikala
Perbakhil
5.32 12 438 09 644 0.12 06
Jaboor Khil 4.61 9.42 630 05 585 0.21 06
Abeed Khil 4.06 10.2 455 04 666 0 07
Maleng Kila 6.32 9.61 487 04 704 0.08 06
Doodi Khil 4.89 8.51 447 06 647 0.11 05
Khurgi 4.5 8.8 739 14 743 0 06
Jandik Kila 4.84 13.2 418 04 637 0.11 06
Zindi Kila 4.22 9.7 457 04 728 0.07 06
Gholamjan
Kila
4.48 9.8 696 04 682 0.08 07
Ziraki 4.87 9 459 05 625 0.12 05
Domail City 4.98 8.7 445 05 646 0.1 07
Maisaar Khil 4.96 9.1 841 10 671 0.09 06
Musa Khil 4.43 15 412 04 714 0 07
Said Khil 4.92 9 490 04 1729 0.1 06
Bezan Khil 6.71 14 651 06 538 0.1 05
Umer Zai 4.76 8 429 05 678 0.06 07
Painda Khil 4.6 9.7 416 05 491 0.07 07
Ghani Khil 4.82 9.5 481 05 463 0.1 06
Sperki 4.63 14 411 04 739 0 07
Bodin Khil 6.89 8.6 863 05 751 0.07 05
Patol Khil 4.13 9.3 721 11 589 0.1 06
Kamar Kala 4.82 8.8 467 05 649 0.06 05
Mangal Mela 6.36 8.2 611 14 588 0.08 07
Sarki Khil 4.23 9 434 05 1697 0.09 06
Landi
Jalandhar
4.61 9.4 413 04 621 0.06 06
Abad Khil 4.96 8.4 541 04 431 0.1 06
Mahajir
Camp
4.965 11.5 497 05 474 0.12 07
Edil Khil 4.78 9.3 457 05 706 0.13 06
Bakir Khil 5.61 8.6 617 11 759 0.09 07
Kaama
Chaashmi
4.18 8.9 437 18 569 0 06
Bara
Chashmi
6.32 10 683 05 778 0 08
Spina Tangi 4.76 7.5 439 04 1715 0.09 05
Olegi 4.33 9.5 690 03 590 0.1 06
Oleegi Musa
Khil
4.57 8.31 428 03 657 0.1 07
Maani Kila 6.88 7.9 519 11 693 0.07 07
Marghali
Pirbakhil
4.29 9 431 04 1508 0.08
6
06
Sed Rawand 4.78 8.8 566 03 419 0 05
Dogar
Umerzai
4.95 9.7 497 05 467 0 06
Sinzaar Khil 4.97 8.6 415 03 634 0.14 07
Maasti Khil 4.12 11 423 05 729 0.11 06
Table 2 findings indicate localized contamination of
lead and cadmium in certain areas, posing potential
health risks to consumers.
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
26J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health SciJanuary - June 2025
people in Asia and Africa are having life lacking access
to fresh drinking water. As a result, various disorders in
people have been caused by the lack of safe drinking
water facilities.9 Inappropriate drinking water quality is
causing most diseases in Pakistan. The wide diversity
of microbes is spreading waterborne diseases. The
higher the level of faecal pollution more will be the
risk of faecal-oral diseases when indicator bacteria (E.
coli) is higher. 100 ml of drinking water should not
have Fecal coliforms especially E. coli.10 The primary
objective of this research was to conduct a
comprehensive physico-chemical and bacteriological
analysis of underground potable water sources in
Tehsil Domel, District Bannu. This study aimed to
evaluate the water quality parameters to determine its
suitability for human consumption and identify
potential health risks associated with contamination.
METHODOLOGY
Forty drinking water samples were collected from
underground pressure pumps across different locations
in Tehsil Domel, District Bannu, following standard
protocols described by APHA (2017).11 Samples were
collected in sterile 1L polyethene bottles, transported in
ice boxes maintained at 4°C, and analyzed within 24
hours of collection. Water quality parameters including
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and salinity were
measured in situ using calibrated portable meters (Hach
HQ40d, USA). Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total
suspended solids (TSS) were determined
gravimetrically following Standard Methods 2540C
and 2540D respectively.12 Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) was measured using the 5-day BOD test
(Standard Method 5210B), while chemical oxygen
demand (COD) was determined using the closed reflux
colourimetric method (Standard Method 5220D).13
Total coliform, faecal coliform, and E. coli were
enumerated using the multiple tube fermentation
technique as per Standard Methods 9221B and 9221E
(12). Total plate count (TPC) was determined using the
pour plate method on plate count agar, incubated at
35±0.5°C for 48 hours.14 Heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb,
and Cd) were analyzed using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 800)
following acid digestion as per EPA Method 3005A.15
Quality control measures included method blanks,
certified reference materials, and duplicate samples.
Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 25.0.
Descriptive statistics were calculated, and results were
compared with WHO drinking water guidelines.
RESULTS
Table 1 indicates slight acidic to alkaline conditions
across the sampling sites.
Table 1: Physico-chemical parameters of drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu
Location BOD
mg/L
COD
mg/L
TDS
mg/L
TSS
mg/
L
Condu
ctivity
μS/cm
Sali
nity
mg/L
pH
Jangikala
Perbakhil
5.32 12 438 09 644 0.12 06
Jaboor Khil 4.61 9.42 630 05 585 0.21 06
Abeed Khil 4.06 10.2 455 04 666 0 07
Maleng Kila 6.32 9.61 487 04 704 0.08 06
Doodi Khil 4.89 8.51 447 06 647 0.11 05
Khurgi 4.5 8.8 739 14 743 0 06
Jandik Kila 4.84 13.2 418 04 637 0.11 06
Zindi Kila 4.22 9.7 457 04 728 0.07 06
Gholamjan
Kila
4.48 9.8 696 04 682 0.08 07
Ziraki 4.87 9 459 05 625 0.12 05
Domail City 4.98 8.7 445 05 646 0.1 07
Maisaar Khil 4.96 9.1 841 10 671 0.09 06
Musa Khil 4.43 15 412 04 714 0 07
Said Khil 4.92 9 490 04 1729 0.1 06
Bezan Khil 6.71 14 651 06 538 0.1 05
Umer Zai 4.76 8 429 05 678 0.06 07
Painda Khil 4.6 9.7 416 05 491 0.07 07
Ghani Khil 4.82 9.5 481 05 463 0.1 06
Sperki 4.63 14 411 04 739 0 07
Bodin Khil 6.89 8.6 863 05 751 0.07 05
Patol Khil 4.13 9.3 721 11 589 0.1 06
Kamar Kala 4.82 8.8 467 05 649 0.06 05
Mangal Mela 6.36 8.2 611 14 588 0.08 07
Sarki Khil 4.23 9 434 05 1697 0.09 06
Landi
Jalandhar
4.61 9.4 413 04 621 0.06 06
Abad Khil 4.96 8.4 541 04 431 0.1 06
Mahajir
Camp
4.965 11.5 497 05 474 0.12 07
Edil Khil 4.78 9.3 457 05 706 0.13 06
Bakir Khil 5.61 8.6 617 11 759 0.09 07
Kaama
Chaashmi
4.18 8.9 437 18 569 0 06
Bara
Chashmi
6.32 10 683 05 778 0 08
Spina Tangi 4.76 7.5 439 04 1715 0.09 05
Olegi 4.33 9.5 690 03 590 0.1 06
Oleegi Musa
Khil
4.57 8.31 428 03 657 0.1 07
Maani Kila 6.88 7.9 519 11 693 0.07 07
Marghali
Pirbakhil
4.29 9 431 04 1508 0.08
6
06
Sed Rawand 4.78 8.8 566 03 419 0 05
Dogar
Umerzai
4.95 9.7 497 05 467 0 06
Sinzaar Khil 4.97 8.6 415 03 634 0.14 07
Maasti Khil 4.12 11 423 05 729 0.11 06
Table 2 findings indicate localized contamination of
lead and cadmium in certain areas, posing potential
health risks to consumers.
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
JGNAHS
27 J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health Sci January - June 2025
Domel, District Bannu
Table 2: Heavy metal concentrations in drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Location Pb
mg/L
Cd
mg/L
Zn
mg/L
Cu
mg/L
Ag
mg/L
Normal
values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
0.01 0.001 0.01-
0.05 02 0.005-
0.05
Jangi
Perbakhil 0.024 0.002 00 0.02 00
Jaboor Khil 00 0.001 0.015 0.006 0.005
Abeed Khil 0.053 0.008 0.052 0.012 00
Malaang
Kila 00 0.001 00 0.004 00
Doodi Khil 0.024 00 0.042 0.01 0.003
Khoorgai 0.027 0.001 0.02 0.02 0.08
Jandek Kila 0.033 00 0.013 00 0.01
Zeendi Kila 0.044 00 00 0.001 00
Ghulaam
Jan Kila 0.0066 0.003 00 0.006 00
Zeeraki 0.035 0.002 0.015 00 00
Domail
City 0.004 00 0.01 0.01 0.003
Maisaar
Khil 0.02 0.001 0.032 0.007 0.002
Musa Khil 00 0.003 0.052 0.005 0.001
Sed Khil 0.04 0.001 0.07 0.001 00
Beezan
Khil 0.028 00 0.004 00 0.08
Umarzi 0.045 0.008 00 00 0.005
Painda Khil 0.074 0.002 0.01 0.02 00
Ghaani
Khil 00 00 0.05 0.04 00
Spirki 0.034 0.004 00 0.07 0.002
Boodin
Khil 0.01 0.004 0.063 00 00
Patool Khil 0.05 0.004 0.03 0.002 0
Kaamar
Kila 0.028 0.005 00 0.007 0.004
Mangel
Mila 0.006 00 0.04 00 0.001
Serki Khil 0.034 0.002 0.015 00 0.05
Laandi
Jalendar 0.04 0.008 0.014 0.001 00
Abaad Khil 0.025 0.001 0.014 0.004 0.004
Majar
Camp 00 0.004 00 0.00 0.004
Eidal Khil 0.005 00 0.04 0.005 0.002
Baakar
Khil 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.005 00
Kaama
Chaashmi 0.04 0.004 00 0.004 00
Bara
Chasahmi 0.005 0.005 0.015 00 00
Speena
Tangi 00 0.001 0.012 0.006 0.08
Oligi 0.01 00 0.042 00 0.002
Oleegi
Mosa Khil 0.034 0.009 0.016 0.001 0.002
Mani Kila 0.074 0.001 00 00 00
Marghaali
Pirbakhil 00 0.002 0.013 0.002 0.02
Sed
Rawand 0.025 00 0.011 0.005 00
Doger
Umarzi 0.071 0.007 00 00 00
Sinzar Khil 0.02 0.004 0.015 0.006 0.005
MaastiKhil 0.024 0.001 0.052 0.002 0.08
Table 3 findings highlight the need for immediate
intervention to ensure the safety of drinking water in
the study area.
Table 3: Bacteriological analysis of drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu
Location TPC
CFU/ml
Coliform
Bacteria
(MPN/100
ml)
Faecal
Coliform
(MPN/100
ml)
E. coli
Jangii Pirbakhil 113 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Jaboor Khil 120 < 1.1 <1.1 Negative
Abed Khil 160 2.2 1.1 Negative
Maalang Kala 230 3.6 <1.1 Positive
Dodi Khil 335 23 2.2 Positive
Khoorgai 256 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Jandek Kila 470 2.2 3.6 Negative
Zindi Kila 91 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Ghulam Jaan
Kila
276 3.6 <1.1 Negative
Zeeraki 88 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Domail City 267 3.6 2.2 Negative
Maisaar Khil 97 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Musa Khil 178 2.2 2.2 Negative
Sed Khil 245 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Beezan Khil 398 5.1 9.2 Positive
Umarzai 94 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Painda Khil 134 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Ghaani Khil 277 3.6 2.2 Negative
Speerki 132 2.2 <1.1 Negative
Boden Khil 561 3.6 9.2 Positive
Patool Khil 290 3.3 <1.1 Negative
Kamaar Kala 86 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Mangal Mela 121 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Serki Khil 245 9.2 1.1 Negative
Laandi
Jilandar
75 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Abaad Khil 120 1.2 <1.1 Negative
Majar Camp 160 <1.1 2.2 Negative
Eidal Khil 230 9.2 1.1 Negative
Bakkar Khil 335 5.1 <1.1 Negative
Kama
Chaashmi
256 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Bara
Chaashmi
470 2.2 9.2 Positive
Spina Tangi 91 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Olegi 276 3.3 2.2 Negative
Oleegi Musa
Khil
88 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Maani Kila 296 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Marghalii
Perbakhil
92 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Sed Rawand 144 1.1 2.2 Negative
Dogar Umerzai 273 3.6 <1.1 Negative
Sinzar Khil 139 <1.1 2.2 Negative
Masti Khil 566 6.9 9.2 Positive
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
27 J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health Sci January - June 2025
Domel, District Bannu
Table 2: Heavy metal concentrations in drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Location Pb
mg/L
Cd
mg/L
Zn
mg/L
Cu
mg/L
Ag
mg/L
Normal
values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
Normal
Values
0.01 0.001 0.01-
0.05 02 0.005-
0.05
Jangi
Perbakhil 0.024 0.002 00 0.02 00
Jaboor Khil 00 0.001 0.015 0.006 0.005
Abeed Khil 0.053 0.008 0.052 0.012 00
Malaang
Kila 00 0.001 00 0.004 00
Doodi Khil 0.024 00 0.042 0.01 0.003
Khoorgai 0.027 0.001 0.02 0.02 0.08
Jandek Kila 0.033 00 0.013 00 0.01
Zeendi Kila 0.044 00 00 0.001 00
Ghulaam
Jan Kila 0.0066 0.003 00 0.006 00
Zeeraki 0.035 0.002 0.015 00 00
Domail
City 0.004 00 0.01 0.01 0.003
Maisaar
Khil 0.02 0.001 0.032 0.007 0.002
Musa Khil 00 0.003 0.052 0.005 0.001
Sed Khil 0.04 0.001 0.07 0.001 00
Beezan
Khil 0.028 00 0.004 00 0.08
Umarzi 0.045 0.008 00 00 0.005
Painda Khil 0.074 0.002 0.01 0.02 00
Ghaani
Khil 00 00 0.05 0.04 00
Spirki 0.034 0.004 00 0.07 0.002
Boodin
Khil 0.01 0.004 0.063 00 00
Patool Khil 0.05 0.004 0.03 0.002 0
Kaamar
Kila 0.028 0.005 00 0.007 0.004
Mangel
Mila 0.006 00 0.04 00 0.001
Serki Khil 0.034 0.002 0.015 00 0.05
Laandi
Jalendar 0.04 0.008 0.014 0.001 00
Abaad Khil 0.025 0.001 0.014 0.004 0.004
Majar
Camp 00 0.004 00 0.00 0.004
Eidal Khil 0.005 00 0.04 0.005 0.002
Baakar
Khil 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.005 00
Kaama
Chaashmi 0.04 0.004 00 0.004 00
Bara
Chasahmi 0.005 0.005 0.015 00 00
Speena
Tangi 00 0.001 0.012 0.006 0.08
Oligi 0.01 00 0.042 00 0.002
Oleegi
Mosa Khil 0.034 0.009 0.016 0.001 0.002
Mani Kila 0.074 0.001 00 00 00
Marghaali
Pirbakhil 00 0.002 0.013 0.002 0.02
Sed
Rawand 0.025 00 0.011 0.005 00
Doger
Umarzi 0.071 0.007 00 00 00
Sinzar Khil 0.02 0.004 0.015 0.006 0.005
MaastiKhil 0.024 0.001 0.052 0.002 0.08
Table 3 findings highlight the need for immediate
intervention to ensure the safety of drinking water in
the study area.
Table 3: Bacteriological analysis of drinking water samples
collected from underground pressure pumps across Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu
Location TPC
CFU/ml
Coliform
Bacteria
(MPN/100
ml)
Faecal
Coliform
(MPN/100
ml)
E. coli
Jangii Pirbakhil 113 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Jaboor Khil 120 < 1.1 <1.1 Negative
Abed Khil 160 2.2 1.1 Negative
Maalang Kala 230 3.6 <1.1 Positive
Dodi Khil 335 23 2.2 Positive
Khoorgai 256 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Jandek Kila 470 2.2 3.6 Negative
Zindi Kila 91 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Ghulam Jaan
Kila
276 3.6 <1.1 Negative
Zeeraki 88 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Domail City 267 3.6 2.2 Negative
Maisaar Khil 97 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Musa Khil 178 2.2 2.2 Negative
Sed Khil 245 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Beezan Khil 398 5.1 9.2 Positive
Umarzai 94 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Painda Khil 134 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Ghaani Khil 277 3.6 2.2 Negative
Speerki 132 2.2 <1.1 Negative
Boden Khil 561 3.6 9.2 Positive
Patool Khil 290 3.3 <1.1 Negative
Kamaar Kala 86 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Mangal Mela 121 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Serki Khil 245 9.2 1.1 Negative
Laandi
Jilandar
75 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Abaad Khil 120 1.2 <1.1 Negative
Majar Camp 160 <1.1 2.2 Negative
Eidal Khil 230 9.2 1.1 Negative
Bakkar Khil 335 5.1 <1.1 Negative
Kama
Chaashmi
256 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Bara
Chaashmi
470 2.2 9.2 Positive
Spina Tangi 91 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Olegi 276 3.3 2.2 Negative
Oleegi Musa
Khil
88 <1.1 <1.1 Negative
Maani Kila 296 9.2 <1.1 Negative
Marghalii
Perbakhil
92 <1.1 1.1 Negative
Sed Rawand 144 1.1 2.2 Negative
Dogar Umerzai 273 3.6 <1.1 Negative
Sinzar Khil 139 <1.1 2.2 Negative
Masti Khil 566 6.9 9.2 Positive
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
JGNAHS
28J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health SciJanuary - June 2025
DISCUSSION
Our findings revealed significant deviations in several
physico-chemical parameters from WHO standards
across the study area. The elevated levels of TSS (23%
of samples) and TDS (37% of samples) align with
findings by Rahman et al. (2022) in a similar
geological setting, where they reported 31% of
groundwater samples exceeding WHO limits for TDS
in crystalline aquifer.16,17 The observed BOD (20%)
and COD (17.5%) elevations suggest organic
contamination, comparable to findings by Ahmed et al.
(2022) in rural groundwater sources.18 The acidic pH
values recorded in several locations present a dual
concern: potential gastrointestinal health impacts and
infrastructure degradation. Similar pH-related
challenges were documented by Kumar et al. (2024) in
groundwater systems of semi-arid regions, where 15%
of samples showed pH values below WHO
standards.19,20 The elevated concentrations of Pb and
Cd in specific locations (particularly in Mani Kila and
Painda Khil for Pb, and Oleegi Mosa Khil for Cd)
represent a significant public health concern. These
findings parallel recent studies by Zhang et al. (2023),
who reported similar heavy metal contamination
patterns in the groundwater of agricultural regions.21
The observed pattern of metal contamination,
particularly the elevated Pb and Cd levels, while Cu
and Zn remained within permissible limits, suggests
anthropogenic sources, primarily agricultural inputs, as
noted in similar studies by Wilson, 2010.22 The
bacteriological analysis revealed levels of
contamination in several locations. The high TPC
values (>500 CFU/ml) in Masti Khil (566 CFU/ml) and
Bodin Khil (561 CFU/ml) significantly exceed WHO
standards (<100 CFU/ml). These findings are
comparable to those reported by Tufail et al., 2024,
who found similar bacterial loads in rural groundwater
sources, attributing them to poor sanitation
infrastructure.23 The detection of E. coli in 15% of
samples (six locations) indicates significant faecal
contamination, correlating with findings by Andrade et
al., 2022, who reported 12-18% E. coli prevalence in
similar settings 24. The highest bacterial contamination
in Masti Khil, Bodin Khil, and Bara Chashmi suggests
localized contamination sources, possibly due to
proximity to waste disposal sites or agricultural
activities, as similarly observed by Gwimbi et al.,
2019.25 The co-occurrence of multiple contaminants
(both chemical and biological) in several locations
presents a compound risk to public health. Recent
meta-analyses by Adeola et al., 2024 demonstrate that
such combined contamination can lead to increased
incidence of waterborne diseases, particularly affecting
vulnerable populations.26 The presence of both heavy
metals and faecal contamination in some locations
suggests multiple contamination pathways that require
integrated intervention strategies. The spatial
distribution of contamination appears to be influenced
by both natural (geological) and anthropogenic factors.
The proximity to highlands and subsequent rock
weathering, combined with agricultural practices,
creates a complex contamination profile similar to that
observed by Khan et al. (2023) in comparable
geological settings.27 The use of agrochemicals, as
evidenced by metal contamination patterns, mirrors
findings from recent studies by Noethen et al., 2024 on
agricultural impacts on groundwater quality.28
LIMITATIONS
he limitations of this study include its focus on Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu, limiting generalizability to
other regions. It only analyzed underground pressure
pump water, excluding other sources. Seasonal
variations were not considered as sampling occurred at
one point in time. Minor analytical uncertainties may
arise despite quality control measures. The study
assessed key contaminants but did not cover all
potential pollutants, and it lacked a direct health impact
analysis linking contamination to health outcomes.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights significant physico-chemical and
bacteriological contamination in drinking water sources
across Tehsil Domel, District Bannu. Elevated levels of
TSS, TDS, BOD, COD, and heavy metals such as Pb
and Cd, alongside the presence of E. coli in several
locations, indicate serious public health risks. The
findings underscore the urgent need for improved water
quality management, regular monitoring, and public
awareness campaigns to mitigate contamination
sources and ensure safe drinking water for the local
population.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST: None
FUNDING SOURCES: None
REFERENCES
1. Mishra R, Dubey S. Fresh Water Availability and It's Global
Challenge. 2015.
2. Khan M. Impact of urbanization on water resources of
Pakistan: A review. NUST Journal of Engineering Sciences.
2019;12:1-8.
3. Suprabha L. Availability Problem of Drinking Water in an
Urban Area - Effects of Family Size and Monthly Income: An
Empirical Study. Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science
and Humanities. 2024;12:50-4.
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
28J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health SciJanuary - June 2025
DISCUSSION
Our findings revealed significant deviations in several
physico-chemical parameters from WHO standards
across the study area. The elevated levels of TSS (23%
of samples) and TDS (37% of samples) align with
findings by Rahman et al. (2022) in a similar
geological setting, where they reported 31% of
groundwater samples exceeding WHO limits for TDS
in crystalline aquifer.16,17 The observed BOD (20%)
and COD (17.5%) elevations suggest organic
contamination, comparable to findings by Ahmed et al.
(2022) in rural groundwater sources.18 The acidic pH
values recorded in several locations present a dual
concern: potential gastrointestinal health impacts and
infrastructure degradation. Similar pH-related
challenges were documented by Kumar et al. (2024) in
groundwater systems of semi-arid regions, where 15%
of samples showed pH values below WHO
standards.19,20 The elevated concentrations of Pb and
Cd in specific locations (particularly in Mani Kila and
Painda Khil for Pb, and Oleegi Mosa Khil for Cd)
represent a significant public health concern. These
findings parallel recent studies by Zhang et al. (2023),
who reported similar heavy metal contamination
patterns in the groundwater of agricultural regions.21
The observed pattern of metal contamination,
particularly the elevated Pb and Cd levels, while Cu
and Zn remained within permissible limits, suggests
anthropogenic sources, primarily agricultural inputs, as
noted in similar studies by Wilson, 2010.22 The
bacteriological analysis revealed levels of
contamination in several locations. The high TPC
values (>500 CFU/ml) in Masti Khil (566 CFU/ml) and
Bodin Khil (561 CFU/ml) significantly exceed WHO
standards (<100 CFU/ml). These findings are
comparable to those reported by Tufail et al., 2024,
who found similar bacterial loads in rural groundwater
sources, attributing them to poor sanitation
infrastructure.23 The detection of E. coli in 15% of
samples (six locations) indicates significant faecal
contamination, correlating with findings by Andrade et
al., 2022, who reported 12-18% E. coli prevalence in
similar settings 24. The highest bacterial contamination
in Masti Khil, Bodin Khil, and Bara Chashmi suggests
localized contamination sources, possibly due to
proximity to waste disposal sites or agricultural
activities, as similarly observed by Gwimbi et al.,
2019.25 The co-occurrence of multiple contaminants
(both chemical and biological) in several locations
presents a compound risk to public health. Recent
meta-analyses by Adeola et al., 2024 demonstrate that
such combined contamination can lead to increased
incidence of waterborne diseases, particularly affecting
vulnerable populations.26 The presence of both heavy
metals and faecal contamination in some locations
suggests multiple contamination pathways that require
integrated intervention strategies. The spatial
distribution of contamination appears to be influenced
by both natural (geological) and anthropogenic factors.
The proximity to highlands and subsequent rock
weathering, combined with agricultural practices,
creates a complex contamination profile similar to that
observed by Khan et al. (2023) in comparable
geological settings.27 The use of agrochemicals, as
evidenced by metal contamination patterns, mirrors
findings from recent studies by Noethen et al., 2024 on
agricultural impacts on groundwater quality.28
LIMITATIONS
he limitations of this study include its focus on Tehsil
Domel, District Bannu, limiting generalizability to
other regions. It only analyzed underground pressure
pump water, excluding other sources. Seasonal
variations were not considered as sampling occurred at
one point in time. Minor analytical uncertainties may
arise despite quality control measures. The study
assessed key contaminants but did not cover all
potential pollutants, and it lacked a direct health impact
analysis linking contamination to health outcomes.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights significant physico-chemical and
bacteriological contamination in drinking water sources
across Tehsil Domel, District Bannu. Elevated levels of
TSS, TDS, BOD, COD, and heavy metals such as Pb
and Cd, alongside the presence of E. coli in several
locations, indicate serious public health risks. The
findings underscore the urgent need for improved water
quality management, regular monitoring, and public
awareness campaigns to mitigate contamination
sources and ensure safe drinking water for the local
population.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST: None
FUNDING SOURCES: None
REFERENCES
1. Mishra R, Dubey S. Fresh Water Availability and It's Global
Challenge. 2015.
2. Khan M. Impact of urbanization on water resources of
Pakistan: A review. NUST Journal of Engineering Sciences.
2019;12:1-8.
3. Suprabha L. Availability Problem of Drinking Water in an
Urban Area - Effects of Family Size and Monthly Income: An
Empirical Study. Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science
and Humanities. 2024;12:50-4.
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
JGNAHS
29 J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health Sci January - June 2025
4. Kumar L, Kumari R, Kumar A, Tunio IA, Sassanelli C. Water
Quality Assessment and Monitoring in Pakistan: A
Comprehensive Review. Sustainability [Internet]. 2023; 15(7).
5. Qamar K, Nchasi G, Mirha HT, Siddiqui JA, Jahangir K,
Shaeen SK, et al. Water sanitation problem in Pakistan: A
review on disease prevalence, strategies for treatment and
prevention. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2022;82:104709.
6. Singh M, Yadav D. Physico-Chemical Parameters for Water
Quality Check: A Comprehensive Review2022.
7. Rahman A, Jahanara I, Jolly YN. Assessment of
physicochemical properties of water and their seasonal
variation in an urban river in Bangladesh. Water Science and
Engineering. 2021;14(2):139-48.
8. Vigiak O, Grizzetti B, Udias-Moinelo A, Zanni M, Dorati C,
Bouraoui F, et al. Predicting biochemical oxygen demand in
European freshwater bodies. Sci Total Environ.
2019;666:1089-105.
9. UNICEF. The progress of nations: Unicef; 1998.
10. Daud MK, Nafees M, Ali S, Rizwan M, Bajwa RA, Shakoor
MB, et al. Drinking Water Quality Status and Contamination in
Pakistan. Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:7908183.
11. Arain M, Ullah I, Niaz A, Shah N, Shah A, Hussain Z, et al.
Evaluation of water quality parameters in drinking water of
district Bannu, Pakistan: Multivariate study. Sustainability of
Water Quality and Ecology. 2015;3-4.
12. Adjovu GE, Stephen H, James D, Ahmad S. Measurement of
Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids in Water
Systems: A Review of the Issues, Conventional, and Remote
Sensing Techniques. Remote Sensing [Internet]. 2023; 15(14).
13. Vyrides I, Stuckey D. A modified method for the determination
of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for samples with high
salinity and low organics. Bioresource technology.
2008;100:979-82.
14. Grasso G, Sammarco M, Ripabelli G, Fanelli I. Enumeration of
Escherichia coli and coliforms in surface water by multiple tube
fermentation and membrane filter methods. Microbios.
2000;103:119-25.
15. Uddin ABMH, Khalid RS, Alaama M, Abdualkader AM,
Kasmuri A, Abbas SA. Comparative study of three digestion
methods for elemental analysis in traditional medicine products
using atomic absorption spectrometry. Journal of Analytical
Science and Technology. 2016;7(1):6.
16. Wang S, Xie Z, Wang F, Zhang Y, Wang W, Liu K, et al.
Geochemical Characteristics and Quality Appraisal of
Groundwater From Huatugou of the Qaidam Basin on the
Tibetan Plateau. Frontiers in Earth Science. 2022;10:874881.
17. Rahman A, Kumar P, Dominguez F. Increasing freshwater
supply to sustainably address global water security at scale.
Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):20262.
18. Ahmad N, Khan S, Ehsan M, Rehman F, Al-Shuhail A.
Correction: Ahmad et al. Estimating the Total Volume of
Running Water Bodies Using Geographic Information System
(GIS): A Case Study of Peshawar Basin (Pakistan).
Sustainability 2022, 14, 3754. Sustainability. 2022;14:8750.
19. Kumar R, Singh S, Kumar R, Sharma P. Groundwater Quality
Characterization for Safe Drinking Water Supply in Sheikhpura
District of Bihar, India: A Geospatial Approach. Frontiers in
Water. 2022;4.
20. Nayak A, Matta G, Prasad Uniyal D, Kumar A, Kumar P, Pant
G. Assessment of potentially toxic elements in groundwater
through interpolation, pollution indices, and chemometric
techniques in Dehradun in Uttarakhand State. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research. 2024;31(25):36241-63.
21. Zhang Y, Deng J, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Qin B, Song C, et al.
Drinking water safety improvement and future challenge of
lakes and reservoirs. Science Bulletin. 2024;69(22):3558-70.
22. Wilson C. Assessing Surface Water Quality and Its Relation
with Urban Land Cover Changes in the Lake Calumet Area,
Greater Chicago. Environmental management. 2010;45:1096-
111.
23. Tufail M, Nasir MJ, Tariq A, Ali Z, Alarifi SS. Assessing
access to safe drinking water in flood-affected areas of District
Nowshera, Pakistan: A case study towards achieving
sustainable development goal 6.1. Ecohydrology &
Hydrobiology. 2024.
24. Andrade L, Boudou M, Hynds P, Chique C, Weatherill J,
O'Dwyer J. Spatiotemporal dynamics of Escherichia coli
presence and magnitude across a national groundwater
monitoring network, Republic of Ireland, 2011–2020. Science
of The Total Environment. 2022;840:156311.
25. Gwimbi P, George M, Ramphalile M. Bacterial contamination
of drinking water sources in rural villages of Mohale Basin,
Lesotho: exposures through neighbourhood sanitation and
hygiene practices. Environmental Health and Preventive
Medicine. 2019;24(1):33.
26. Adeola AO, Paramo L, Fuoco G, Naccache R. Emerging
hazardous chemicals and biological pollutants in Canadian
aquatic systems and remediation approaches: A comprehensive
status report. Science of The Total Environment.
2024;954:176267.
27. Khan N, Ullah R, Okla MK, Abdel-Maksoud MA, Saleh IA,
Abu-Harirah HA, et al. Environmental and anthropogenic
drivers of watercress (Nasturtium officinale) communities in
char-lands and water channels across the Swat River Basin:
implication for conservation planning. Frontiers in Plant
Science. 2023;14.
28. Noethen M, Becher J, Menberg K, Blum P, Schüppler S,
Metzler E, et al. Environmental impact of an anthropogenic
groundwater temperature hotspot. Science of The Total
Environment. 2024;955:177153.
CONTRIBUTORS
1. Noor Zada Khan - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision; Final Approval
2. Waheed Ullah - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision
3. Zakir Ahmad - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
4. Abdullah - Data Acquisition; Data Analysis/Interpretation;
Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
5. Imad Tariq - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
6. Fawad Inayat - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
LICENSE: JGMDS publishes its articles under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike license (CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0).
COPYRIGHTS: Authors retain the rights without any restrictions to freely download, print, share and disseminate the article for any lawful purpose.
It includes scholarlynetworks such as Research Gate, Google Scholar, LinkedIn, Academia.edu, Twitter, and other academic or professional networking sites.
29 J Gandhara Nurs Alli Health Sci January - June 2025
4. Kumar L, Kumari R, Kumar A, Tunio IA, Sassanelli C. Water
Quality Assessment and Monitoring in Pakistan: A
Comprehensive Review. Sustainability [Internet]. 2023; 15(7).
5. Qamar K, Nchasi G, Mirha HT, Siddiqui JA, Jahangir K,
Shaeen SK, et al. Water sanitation problem in Pakistan: A
review on disease prevalence, strategies for treatment and
prevention. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2022;82:104709.
6. Singh M, Yadav D. Physico-Chemical Parameters for Water
Quality Check: A Comprehensive Review2022.
7. Rahman A, Jahanara I, Jolly YN. Assessment of
physicochemical properties of water and their seasonal
variation in an urban river in Bangladesh. Water Science and
Engineering. 2021;14(2):139-48.
8. Vigiak O, Grizzetti B, Udias-Moinelo A, Zanni M, Dorati C,
Bouraoui F, et al. Predicting biochemical oxygen demand in
European freshwater bodies. Sci Total Environ.
2019;666:1089-105.
9. UNICEF. The progress of nations: Unicef; 1998.
10. Daud MK, Nafees M, Ali S, Rizwan M, Bajwa RA, Shakoor
MB, et al. Drinking Water Quality Status and Contamination in
Pakistan. Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:7908183.
11. Arain M, Ullah I, Niaz A, Shah N, Shah A, Hussain Z, et al.
Evaluation of water quality parameters in drinking water of
district Bannu, Pakistan: Multivariate study. Sustainability of
Water Quality and Ecology. 2015;3-4.
12. Adjovu GE, Stephen H, James D, Ahmad S. Measurement of
Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids in Water
Systems: A Review of the Issues, Conventional, and Remote
Sensing Techniques. Remote Sensing [Internet]. 2023; 15(14).
13. Vyrides I, Stuckey D. A modified method for the determination
of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for samples with high
salinity and low organics. Bioresource technology.
2008;100:979-82.
14. Grasso G, Sammarco M, Ripabelli G, Fanelli I. Enumeration of
Escherichia coli and coliforms in surface water by multiple tube
fermentation and membrane filter methods. Microbios.
2000;103:119-25.
15. Uddin ABMH, Khalid RS, Alaama M, Abdualkader AM,
Kasmuri A, Abbas SA. Comparative study of three digestion
methods for elemental analysis in traditional medicine products
using atomic absorption spectrometry. Journal of Analytical
Science and Technology. 2016;7(1):6.
16. Wang S, Xie Z, Wang F, Zhang Y, Wang W, Liu K, et al.
Geochemical Characteristics and Quality Appraisal of
Groundwater From Huatugou of the Qaidam Basin on the
Tibetan Plateau. Frontiers in Earth Science. 2022;10:874881.
17. Rahman A, Kumar P, Dominguez F. Increasing freshwater
supply to sustainably address global water security at scale.
Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):20262.
18. Ahmad N, Khan S, Ehsan M, Rehman F, Al-Shuhail A.
Correction: Ahmad et al. Estimating the Total Volume of
Running Water Bodies Using Geographic Information System
(GIS): A Case Study of Peshawar Basin (Pakistan).
Sustainability 2022, 14, 3754. Sustainability. 2022;14:8750.
19. Kumar R, Singh S, Kumar R, Sharma P. Groundwater Quality
Characterization for Safe Drinking Water Supply in Sheikhpura
District of Bihar, India: A Geospatial Approach. Frontiers in
Water. 2022;4.
20. Nayak A, Matta G, Prasad Uniyal D, Kumar A, Kumar P, Pant
G. Assessment of potentially toxic elements in groundwater
through interpolation, pollution indices, and chemometric
techniques in Dehradun in Uttarakhand State. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research. 2024;31(25):36241-63.
21. Zhang Y, Deng J, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Qin B, Song C, et al.
Drinking water safety improvement and future challenge of
lakes and reservoirs. Science Bulletin. 2024;69(22):3558-70.
22. Wilson C. Assessing Surface Water Quality and Its Relation
with Urban Land Cover Changes in the Lake Calumet Area,
Greater Chicago. Environmental management. 2010;45:1096-
111.
23. Tufail M, Nasir MJ, Tariq A, Ali Z, Alarifi SS. Assessing
access to safe drinking water in flood-affected areas of District
Nowshera, Pakistan: A case study towards achieving
sustainable development goal 6.1. Ecohydrology &
Hydrobiology. 2024.
24. Andrade L, Boudou M, Hynds P, Chique C, Weatherill J,
O'Dwyer J. Spatiotemporal dynamics of Escherichia coli
presence and magnitude across a national groundwater
monitoring network, Republic of Ireland, 2011–2020. Science
of The Total Environment. 2022;840:156311.
25. Gwimbi P, George M, Ramphalile M. Bacterial contamination
of drinking water sources in rural villages of Mohale Basin,
Lesotho: exposures through neighbourhood sanitation and
hygiene practices. Environmental Health and Preventive
Medicine. 2019;24(1):33.
26. Adeola AO, Paramo L, Fuoco G, Naccache R. Emerging
hazardous chemicals and biological pollutants in Canadian
aquatic systems and remediation approaches: A comprehensive
status report. Science of The Total Environment.
2024;954:176267.
27. Khan N, Ullah R, Okla MK, Abdel-Maksoud MA, Saleh IA,
Abu-Harirah HA, et al. Environmental and anthropogenic
drivers of watercress (Nasturtium officinale) communities in
char-lands and water channels across the Swat River Basin:
implication for conservation planning. Frontiers in Plant
Science. 2023;14.
28. Noethen M, Becher J, Menberg K, Blum P, Schüppler S,
Metzler E, et al. Environmental impact of an anthropogenic
groundwater temperature hotspot. Science of The Total
Environment. 2024;955:177153.
CONTRIBUTORS
1. Noor Zada Khan - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision; Final Approval
2. Waheed Ullah - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision
3. Zakir Ahmad - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
4. Abdullah - Data Acquisition; Data Analysis/Interpretation;
Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
5. Imad Tariq - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical Revision
6. Fawad Inayat - Concept & Design; Data Acquisition; Data
Analysis/Interpretation; Drafting Manuscript; Critical
Revision; Supervision
Bacteriological and Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
LICENSE: JGMDS publishes its articles under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike license (CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0).
COPYRIGHTS: Authors retain the rights without any restrictions to freely download, print, share and disseminate the article for any lawful purpose.
It includes scholarlynetworks such as Research Gate, Google Scholar, LinkedIn, Academia.edu, Twitter, and other academic or professional networking sites.